Major essay Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Major essay - Term Paper Example He is essentially good, nut he, or his ancestors, have broken a moral law – a law of the gods or the state. Shakespeare’s versatility is expressed through his great works which both involved tragedies and comedies. These included his finest comedies such as Much Ado about Nothing, Twelfth Night and As You like It; his great Roman historical plays such as Julius Caesar and Anthony and Cleopatra; and the tragedies Hamlet, Macbeth and Othello. In his tragedies, specifically Othello, end in the protagonist being overcome by forces which he opposed or tried to oppose. The protagonist or the tragic hero is a member of the royalty, or occupies a noble position, who has admirable personal qualities. The tragic hero is essentially good, but he, or his ancestors, has broken a moral law – a law of the gods or the state. In this Shakespeare play, we see the tragic hero struggling to avoid the consequences of transgression, but readers will know that his eventual defeat is inevitable, that he cannot avoid the punishment that will come as a consequence of what he has done. The tragic hero has a fatal defect, a â€Å"tragic flaw† which also leads to his downfall. Shakespeare’s Macbeth is excessively ambitious. The â€Å"flaw† in his character impels the tragic hero into actions which bring about his destruction. Although tragedy leaves readers with a sense of loss because the hero in Shakespeare’s plays have shown the readers how noble and good they are and yet have been destroyed or defeated, readers feel a certain kind of satisfaction because they have demonstrated the value of human nature and have shown readers how noble and great a man can be. Readers feel proud of such a man as the tragic hero, readers also feel humbled by the thought that they may not be able to be as heroic as the he was. Despite commercial consideration and censorship, the achievements of early

2 to 3 page Bible College Administrative Report to be done in APA Essay

2 to 3 page Bible College Administrative Report to be done in APA Format - Essay Example Although established only in 1992, it has a combined instructional history of 130 years (Rocky Mountain College, 2009a, p. 5). RMC offers 2 one-year certificates on Christian Discipleship, 3 two-year diplomas (Christian Leadership, Global Studies & Theatre Arts), a three-year degree on Religious Studies, and 4 four-year degree programs on Human Services, Leadership Development, Music & Theology (Rocky Mountain College, 2009a, p. 22). Founded in 1992 through the cooperation of Lithuanian, Canadian and American foundations, LCC is based in Klaipeda, Lithuania. Its aim is to produce Christian professionals who will actively participate in community projects (LCC, 2009a). LCC offers four undergraduate courses (Business Administration, English Language and Literature, Psychology and Theology) and a Master’s degree in Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages (TESOL) (LCC, 2009c). Although LCC operates in several countries as a nonprofit organization, it is generally governed by an independent Board of Directors, which is composed of members from North America and Lithuania (LCC, 2009b). It can be seen through the chart above how bible colleges, depending on their size and the breadth of the courses they offer, differ when it comes to governance and organizational structure. While their similarities are obvious, their differences are indistinct and needs a closer look. It must be noted, however, that the exact nature of two out of the three Christian Colleges studied here do not present complete data regarding the hierarchy of power and accountability. Thus, this comparative analysis is based on the available data and the inferences that can be drawn from them. Liberty University is governed primarily by the Chancellor and the President of the Board of Trustees, which is the same person. He is also the son of the founder and the President of the Board of Trustees Committees. Even though managing this large

Physical Activity Interventions for Postpartum Depression

Physical Activity Interventions for Postpartum Depression One of the most hazardous occasions for women to indicate depressive symptoms is the period that follows childbirth (Robertson, Celasun Stewart, 2003). According to http://www.apa.org (2015) the percentage of women that are likely to experience symptoms of postpartum depression ranges between 9% and 16%. According to the same source (http://www.apa.org, 2015) new mothers diagnosed with postpartum depression lose the ability to cope with everyday tasks and infant care and are prone to experience stress and melancholia. Robertson,Celasun Stewart,(2003) underline the correlation of the postpartum depression symptomatology with symptoms of severe depression such as lack of energy, low mood and loss of the ability to experience pleasure and report the probable presence of suicidal thoughts. The same researchers also address this complex disorder for new mothers as a severe health issue that affects the immediate family of the women and pinpoint the need to provide efficient solutions to the target population. According to the official website NHS.uk(2015) physical activity has been identified as one of the most prevalent options of treatment of mild depression and evidence supports the coping skills physical activity provides to depressive patients.The website also informs that the psychological therapies such as Cognitive Behavioural Therapy and interpersonal therapy, are the first choice of treatment for moderate postnatal depression to women with no psychiatric history. Robertson, Celasun Stewart,(2003) associate the lack of evidence on successful physical activity interventions as potential alternative treatment for postpartum depression with the undermining of the disease by patients and health professionals, particularly when there is scientific evidence on the positive impact of physical activity on depressive symptomatology(Nice.org.uk, 2009). Currie, Develin, (2002) acknowledge the lack of leisure time due to childcare and financial struggle as potential barriers for mothers with postnatal depression to engage to physical activity programmes. The meta-analyses conducted by Dennis Dowswell(2013) on postnatal depression revealed that, compared to standard treatment ,when women received interventions with psychological or psychosocial context, they were less inclined to develop symptoms of the condition. In their meta-analysis, Daley, Jolly, MacArthur(2009) did not attain evidence to support the replacement of traditional treatment of post-natal depression , with exercise interventions that can deliver results as successful as standard treatment. In a meta analysis (Dally, Jolly, MacArthur,2009)pram –walking group intercessions have been reviewed as easily accessible to women that are diagnosed with postnatal depression and are promoted by well-being practitioners as beneficial. The findings also indicate that Intervention focused on aerobics have successfully reduced the levels of depression for mothers and it might be profitable for future interventions targeting PND to include a mixture of aerobic and mild exercise. The first intervention to be discussed is conducted by Armstrong Edwards(2004), where they designed a 12-week randomised controlled trial for women that have delivered a baby in the past year. The aim of the RCT was to investigate the impact of a physical activity intervention group which involved pram-strolling women with their infants contrasted with the control group that provided social support. Kanotra et al(2007) acknowledge social support as one of the basic needs that arise for women postpartum.The meetings of the social support group were non-organized. In the pre-intervention stage of physical wellness, depression levels and social support were evaluated by quantitative measures. The same measures evaluated the effects after the 12th week when the Intervention was completed. The aim of the Intervention was for the pram-strolling group to indicate a decrease of the symptoms of postnatal depression while enhancing their wellness levels. The enhancement of the social support levels of both groups and the participants’ perspectives of the activities were defined as secondary endpoints. The researchers deduced that pram-strolling groups, integrated with psychological treatment and medication, can provide a cost-effective alternative form of coping with postnatal depression and improving their personal lives, especially when traditional treatment fails to provide efficient results. Robertson, Cesalun, Stewart (2013) acknowledge the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Rating Scale (EPDS), a set of 10 question self-rating scale as the most efficient and approximate to medically evaluated measures for depression. The researchers (Armstrong Edwards, 2004) supported that there was a correlation among fitness and depression; the improvement of the one had a significant effect on the improvement of the other. The results supported this rationale. The authors also suggested that other factors could influence the amelioration with regards to the depression levels.. The findings of the trial showed that in the first group, the symptoms of depression were diminished as well as the physical condition of the mothers was considerably ameliorated. Furthermore, social support was sustained at the same levels for the two groups. Although one of the hypothesis was confirmed, several weaknesses of the study have been acknowledged by the researchers that can undermine the value of the trial and establish it as not applicable to new mothers with postnatal depression(Armstrong Edwards,2004). As it has not been supported by evidence that the Cornish Walking Wheel, which was the measure used for fitness evaluation, can provide an accurate representation of â€Å"the maximum volume of oxygen consumption (VO2max)† (Armstrong Edwards, 2004, pp.6), it is not a reliable measure for fitness evaluation and needs to be examined in future research. Although it is acknowledged that the researchers tried to evaluate the Cornish Walking Wheel in the pilot study they conducted, this evaluation is not sufficient for the fitness measure to be perceived as reliable for fitness evaluation and future research on physical activity interventions of postnatal depression can explore the validity of the measure. Another weakness of the trial as recognised by Armstong Edwards(2004) is the choice of Social Support Interviews (SSI) in the Social Support Group. Although the questionnaire has been used in previous research (O’Hara,1995), it was not assessed for this Intervention against other validated measures. The authors recognise that the lack of results on the levels of social support could be attributed to the brief span of the trial and the measurement’s inability to recognise even mild variation of the social support levels provided to the targeted population. In order for Interventions to be reliable measurement-wise, Armstong Edwards (2004) suggest that the formulation of appropriate measures for each exercise group of postnatal women needs to be established. Armstrong Edwards(2004) raise another issue regarding the small sample of the trial (19 participants) which does not allow the results of the interventions to be generalized. Some other traits that confine the generalizability of the findings include the demographic homogeneity of the trial’s participants as well as the correlation of their high educational, socioeconomic background and regional proximity. As a result, the findings of the interventions, although successful to an extent, they are not applicable to different populations. In order to confirm the success of the randomised controlled trial for postnatal depression focused on pram- walking activities, future trials should be designed to target demographic heterogeneity and the recruitment of participants from various ethnical and socioeconomical backgrounds(Armstrong Edwards,2004). The second study of choice is a pilot study conducted in the UK. In their pilot study Gillinsky, Hughes McInnes(2012) executed a randomized controlled trial that consists of two groups with exercise courses and one 10-week body with pram-strolling activities. The pilot study aims to alter the behaviour of exercise and physical wellbeing and research the efficiency of behavioural and motivational intercessions. The application of accelerometers in the MAMMiS trial (Gillinsky, Hughes McInnes,2012) provides validity to the trial by measuring impartially the levels of physical activity of the participants for a week. The fact that the accelerometer is on for all the wakening hours of their daily schedule is one of the criteria to differentiate this study to more traditional ones on postnatal depression, is ithe fact that it provides flexibility to the daily schedules of new mothers by measuring the physical activity around the clock. One of the advantages of the study is the design (RCT),due to the nature of randomised controlled trials providing evidence that the results of an intervention are caused by the treatment option via randomization(Ebbp.org,2015) and the 12-week follow-up after the intervention is completed. One of the limitations of this trial is that it is a pilot study and pilot studies are implemented to locate certain weaknesses and modify them in order to design a larger, successful trial. Pilot studies explore the potential of an intercession and their results should not be taken at face value, especially because the sample sizes of a pilot study are always small(Leon, Davis Kraemer,2011).Furthermore, the efficacy of the study is potentially limited due to the fact that the trial is delivered by only one health-care professional and to a specific population in the Scottish countryside. In order to design successful intercessions of physical activity on PND based on this pilot study, the target population and the researchers involved need to be distinctive(Gillinsky, Hughes McInnes,2012). On an analysis focused on the impact of exercise on depressive symptoms Daley, Jolly McArthur(2009) concluded that physical activity interventions can be successful only as complementary treatments of postnatal depression, as there was no evidence to indicate successful rates when patients replace standard treatment(medication and psychological support) with exercise. Strà ¶hle (2008) in his paper reaches the same conclusion by arguing that although exercise has not been assessed on delivering clinically valid findings and as a result it cannot be applied instead of traditional treatment, whose clinical value is established. However, he acknowledges the helpful reaction exercise has on depression and encourages future researchers to investigate the appropriate duration and regularity of physical activity interventions(Strà ¶hle,2008). In addition, Robertson, Celasun Stewart(2003), recognise as unlikely for researchers to develop a single effective treatment option for the whole po pulation of postnatal depression, considering there is a variety of probable factors than can lead to the development of postnatal depression. Nevertheless, they underline the demand for sufficient evidence that can be used as a manual from professionals in primary and secondary care.(Robertson, Celasun Stewart,2003). Conclusively, it has been reviewed that studies investigating the efficiency of physical activity on postpartum depression (Daley, Jolly McArthur, 2009) lack sufficient follow-up findings and are characterised by small samples. These two factors indicate that postnatal depression interventions targeting exercise have not been sufficiently explored and future researchers should concentrate on developing interventions with larger populations and longer span of follow-up effects.After the literature review conducted by the National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence in England (NICE)(Nice.org.uk,2009) that supports the benefits of exercise on patients that indicate mild depressive symptoms, the next steps of the research community should be the formulation of cost-effective interventions of moderate exercise that can contemplate the treatment of women diagnosed with postpartum depression (Daley, Jolly,McArthur, 2009). REFERENCES http://www.apa.org,.(2015). Postpartum Depression Fact Sheet. Retrieved 2 March 2015, from http://www.apa.org/pi/women/programs/depression/postpartum.aspx Armstrong, K., Edwards, H. (2004). The effectiveness of a pram-walking exercise programme in reducing depressive symptomatology for postnatal women. International Journal Of Nursing Practice, 10(4), 177-194. doi:10.1111/j.1440-172x.2004.00478.x Currie, J., Develin, E. (2002). STROLL YOUR WAY TO WELL-BEING: A SURVEY OF THE PERCEIVED BENEFITS, BARRIERS, COMMUNITY SUPPORT, AND STIGMA ASSOCIATED WITH PRAM WALKING GROUPS DESIGNED FOR NEW MOTHERS, SYDNEY, AUSTRALIA. Health Care For Women International, 23(8), 882-893. doi:10.1080/07399330290112380 Daley, A., Jolly, K., MacArthur, C. (2009). The effectiveness of exercise in the management of post-natal depression: systematic review and meta-analysis. Family Practice, 26(2), 154-162. doi:10.1093/fampra/cmn101 Dennis CL, Dowswell T. (2013). Psychosocial and psychological interventions for preventing postpartum depression. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 2, Art. No.: CD001134. DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD001134.pub3 Ebbp.org,. (2015). EBBP. Retrieved 3 March 2015, from http://www.ebbp.org/course_outlines/randomized_controlled_trials/ (EPDS), E., Depression., P. (2015). Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale. Psychology Tools. Retrieved 4 March 2015, from https://psychology-tools.com/epds/ Gilinsky, A., Hughes, A., McInnes, R. (2012). More Active Mums in Stirling (MAMMiS): a physical activity intervention for postnatal women. Study protocol for a randomized controlled trial. Trials, 13(1), 112. doi:10.1186/1745-6215-13-112 Kanotra, S., D’Angelo, D., Phares, T., Morrow, B., Barfield, W., Lansky, A. (2007). Challenges Faced by New Mothers in the Early Postpartum Period: An Analysis of Comment Data from the 2000 Pregnancy Risk Assessment Monitoring System (PRAMS) Survey. Matern Child Health J, 11(6), 549-558. doi:10.1007/s10995-007-0206-3 Leon, A., Davis, L., Kraemer, H. (2011). The role and interpretation of pilot studies in clinical research. Journal Of Psychiatric Research, 45(5), 626-629. doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2010.10.008 Nhs.uk,. (2015). Postnatal depression NHS Choices. Retrieved 2 March 2015, from http://www.nhs.uk/conditions/postnataldepression/pages/introduction.aspx Nice.org.uk,. (2009). Depression in adults: The treatment and management of depression in adults | treatments-for-mild-to-moderate-depression | Information for the public | NICE. Retrieved 2 March 2015, from http://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg90/ifp/chapter/treatments-for-mild-to-moderate-depression Ohara, M., Swain, A. (1996). Rates and risk of postpartum depression— a meta-analysis. Int Rev Psychiatry, 8(1), 37-54. doi:10.3109/09540269609037816 Robertson, E., Celasun, N., and Stewart, D.E. (2003). Risk factors for postpartum  depression. In Stewart, D.E., Robertson, E., Dennis, C.-L., Grace, S.L., Wallington, T.(2003). Postpartum depression: Literature review of risk factors and interventions. Strà ¶hle, A. (2008). Physical activity, exercise, depression and anxiety disorders. Journal Of Neural Transmission, 116(6), 777-784. doi:10.1007/s00702-008-0092-x

Teaching - A Way to Make a Difference :: Education College Admissions Philosophy

Teaching - A Way to Make a Difference To me teaching is a way to make a difference in someone’s life. If it is emotional, knowledge base or physical, we as professionals should help the student be all they can be. The reason that I want to become a teacher is so that I can make a difference. I want to help students open many doors to their future. I feel that a teacher should be the person that twenty years down the road that we still inspire the student. I cannot say that I am basically just one of the philosophies. I feel that I am a mixture of many, of the philosophies. I believe in student’s freedom, using hands on approach, and focusing on what has happened in the past to cause us to study certain items. Teachers should be nontraditional, but still have traditional values. We as professionals should keep learning and to make learning exciting no matter what philosophy or theory we use. We are there to enrich the students’ life, to make learning exciting. The classroom will be set up in a way to make learning enjoyable not dreadful. I want to have centers for every type of learner that I have. The bulletin boards will informational but fun learning materials. I feel that a bulletin board should have items on it so that it catches the eyes of the student. By going into history as a professional I would like to see the students to have many different types of learning experiences. Students would do group and individual projects, so that they would learn how to work together and alone. In the classroom, I will set it up so that a student can rise to the sky like a balloon. When it comes to discipline in the class the rules and consequences will be posted and the beginning of the year. How they are set will be by asking the students what they feel the rules should be, and what should be done if they are broken. I feel that if they students feel they helped make the rules and consequences they will follow them more closely.

People Commit Crime for Selfish Reason Essay

Last week, when I was on the way to school and suddenly I heard a girl screaming for help. Then, I straight away went to look for her. I was shocked when I witnessed a girl was being robbed by a man. This gave me a whole idea of crime awareness which is alarming in the country. In this modernization and globalization era, people go against the laws to commit the immoral activities such as kidnapping, murdering and drug dealing because they are self-centered and they do not care about others’ feelings. Thus, do you think it is right to commit crime for selfish reasons? In my opinion, I totally agree that people commit crime for selfish reason or for their own benefits because they are craving for money, want to fulfill their lust or jealousy and to survive in their life. First, I would like to highlight that people commit crime for selfish reasons because they craving for money. In this rat race society, people tend to commit crimes to get more money because they want to increase the standard of their living such as having a luxurious life. Unfortunately, some people can make it but some people fail. If they cannot make it plus they are uneducated or with low paid salary, they will tend to commit crimes such as embezzlement and bribery. This is due to the reason, people will be looked up by others based on their well off appearance, for instance, luxurious car and branded bags will upgrade their status. Consequently, if they are having strong desire to have more money, they will tend to go against the laws and get involved in many illegal activities like robbery. Besides, they do not care about others and they just want to get more money to enjoy their luxurious life. In brief, commiting crimes for money is a selfish action. Another point that I would like to highlight in this phenomenan of people commiting crime for selfish reason is because they want to fulfill their lust or jealousy. If people are feeling very lonely and they have strong desire to do some immoral activities such as sexual harrasment towards a girl by force. For example, when men see sexy and attractive girls walking on the pathway, they are being tempted and this will urge them to harrass those girls. This is because they want to vent their emotion and fulfill their lust and they do not care about others’ feelings. Besides, people tend to commit crimes to fulfill their lust such as raping or killing people for excitement. If people are emotionally sick or pervert and get involved in triangle love such as when two girls are in love with the same guy, both of them might feel jealous with each other and end up with fighting. If this matter turns serious, it might also end up with a murder case. The girl is willing to murder the other girl, so that she can own the guy all for herself. Hence, commiting crimes for fulfilling their lust or jealousy is a self-centered action. Last but not least, I would like to highlight that people commit crime for their own benefits because they want to survive in their life. Without any educational background, they could not get a proper job to sustain a living in the high cost standard in the city. As a result, this will lead them to commit crimes such as kidnapping and robbery to survive. Besides, they need food, shelter and other physical needs of life that lead them to commit crime for their own survival. Thus, they care less about the cosequences of their action and even ignore the pain of the victims from the actions that they have done. Other than that, some people are lazy to work for their life and always think about to go for an easy way so that they will tend to commit crimes for their self-centered reasons for instance stealing, break-in houses and car thieves. Therefore, commiting crimes for survival in their life is a selfish action. In conclusion, I restate my stand that people commit crimes for their own purposes. Their selfish action is due to craving for money, fulfilling their lust or jealousy and surviving in their life. All of these are also not a good excuse for commiting crimes and these problems have to be resolved as soon as possible which needs the co-operation between the government and citizen of Malaysia.

Cnps 365 Midterm 1 Notes

Chapter 4 & 5 Psychoanalytic Therapy †¢Sigmund Freud. †¢Freuds psychoanalytical system = model of personality development, approach to psychotherapy †¢Often a benchmark used for other theories †¢Freudian view of human nature = deterministic †¢Behaviour determined by irrational forces, unconscious motivations 0biological/instinctual drives, evolve through key psycho sexual stages in first 6 years of life †¢Instincts central †¢Libido = energy of all life instincts Libido, source of motivation that encompasses sexual energy but goes beyond it †¢Both sexual and aggressive drives are powerful determinants of why people act as they do †¢Psychoanalytical view – three systems for personality: id, ego, superego †¢Id = biological, ego = psychological, superego = social †¢Humans = energy systems †¢Id, original system of personality, at birth person is all id. Primary source of psychic energy and seat of instincts. Blind, demandi ng, insistent, lacks organization.Cannot tolerate tension and discharges tension immediately. Ruled by pleasure principle (reducing tension, avoid pain, gain pleasure). Id is Illogical, amoral, satisfy instinctual needs, never matures. Doesn’t think, acts or wishes, largely unconscious. †¢Ego governs, controls, regulates personality. Controls consciousness and exercises censorship. Realistic and logical thinking, formulates plans of acitons for satisfying needs. Ego checks and controls blind impulses of id, ego distinguishes between mental images and things in external world. Superego is judical branch of personality. Includes moral code, main concern of whether action is good/right/wrong/bad. Superego reprents values/ideals of society as they are handed down from generations. Inhibits the id impulses, to persuade ego to substitute moralistic goals for realistic ones and to strive for perfection. Supergego related to psychological rewards and punishments †¢Dreams, s lips of tongue and forgetting, posthypnotic uggestions, material derived from free-association techniques, material derived from projective techniques, symbolic content of psychotic symptoms all represent unconscious. †¢Unconscious stores experiences memory and repressed material †¢Aim of psychoanalytic therapy is to make unconscious motives conscious. †¢Anxiety – feeling of dread from repressed feelings, memories, desires, and experiences †¢Anxeity develops from conflicts amongst id,ego, and super ego. †¢Anxeity warns of impending danger 3 Types of anxiety, reality, neurotic, moral †¢Reality anxiety – fear of danger from external world †¢Neurotic and moral anxiety evoked by threats to balance of power within person †¢Neurotic anxiety is fear that instinct will get out of hand †¢Moral anxiety is fear of ones conscience †¢Ego-defense mechanisms cope with anxiety, prevent ego from being overwhelmed. †¢Defense mechani sms either deny/distort reality, or operate on unconscious level †¢Psychosexual stages = Freudian development Typical defense mechanisms: Repression, Denial, Reaction formation, Projection, Displacement, Rationalization, Sublimation, Regression, Introjection, Identification, Compensation †¢Freuds psychosexual stages of development: oral stage, anal stage, phallic, stage †¢Oral stage – inability to trust self na others = fear of loving, close relationships, low self-esteem †¢Anal stage – inability to recognize and express anger, leads to denial of ones power and lack of sense of autonomy †¢Phallic stage, inability to fully accept ones sexuality and sexual feelings, difficult to accept self as man or woman.All done within first 6 years of life, Oral(0-1), Anal (1-3) Phallic(3-6). First 6 years are foundation, if needs not met during development may become psychologically immature †¢Erikson’s Psychosocial Perspective †¢Psychosexua l + psychosocial development occurs together, each stage of life, faced with task of establishing equilibrium. †¢Crisis = turning point with potential to move forward or regress †¢Classical psychoanalysis grounded on id psychology †¢Contemporary psychoanalysis based on ego psychology †¢Freudian goals include making the unconscious conscious and strengthen the ego †¢Blank Screen Approach – anonymous stance Transference relationship, the transfer of feelings originally experienced in an early relationship to other important people in a persons present environment †¢Attention given to clients resistances. Analysts listens for gaps, inconsistencies, free associations, infers meanings of dream †¢Psychoanalytic therapy is somewhat like putting pieces of puzzles together †¢Free association – say whatever comes to find, no self censorship (classical psychoanalysis) typical laying on a couch scenario †¢Transference – clients u nconscious shifting to the analyst of feelings and fantasies that are reactions to significant others in the client’s past.Involves the unconscious repetition of the past in the present †¢Working through – exploration of unconscious material and defenses. Results in resolution of old pattrerns allows clients to make new choices †¢Countertransference, when therapist respond in irrational ways because their own conflicts trigger †¢Psychodynamic therapy – geared to limted objectives than to restructuring personality. Therapist lesss likely to use couch, fewer sessions per week, frequent use of supportive interventions, more self disclosure by therapist, focus more on pressing practical concerns than on fantasy material. Aimed at increasing awareness, fostering insights into clients behaviour †¢6 basic techniques – maintaining the analytic framework, free association, interpretation, dream analysis, analysis of resistance, analysis of tran sference †¢Carl Jung’s analytical psychology is a explaination of human nature that combines ideas from history mythology anthropology and religion. †¢Jung – more focus on finding the meaning in life as opposed to being driven by psychological and biological forces described by Freud. †¢Jung – shaped by past and also future Present personality shaped by w ho and what we have been and aspire to be †¢Persona – mask/public face we wear to protect ourselves †¢Animus and anima = both biological and psychological aspects of masculinity and femininity †¢Shadow – deepest roots and most powerful and dangerous of all archetypes, †¢Jung – dreams are a pathway into unconscious, but they help people prepare themselves for experiences and events in the future, and work to bring a balance between opposites in a person. More of an attempt to express then to repress and disguise. †¢Ego psychology developed largely by E rikson Psychoanalyitcal therapy, more concerned with long term personality reconstruction than short term problem solving Chapter 5 †¢Alfred Adler – Individual Psychology †¢Individual begins to form approach to life somewhere in first 6 years of living †¢Humans motivated primarily by social relatedness †¢Behaviour is purposeful and goal directed, more conscious than not †¢Focused on inferiority feelings – wellspring of creativity †¢Human behaviour not determined by heredity and environment, capacity to interpret influence and create events †¢Biological and environmental conditions limit our capacity to choose and to create †¢Approach is holistic, social.Goal oriented, systemic, humanistic †¢View world from clients subjective perception of reference = phenomenological, pays attention to how people perceive their world †¢Individual Psychology – Alfred Adler †¢Must fully understand all parts of an individual â € ¢Determinstic explainations replaced with teleological (purposive, goal-oriented) ones. †¢Interested in future without minimizing importance of past influences, decisions based on a persons experiences and on direction they are moving †¢Adler influenced by fiction †¢Fictional finalism, imagined central goal that guides a persons behaviour †¢Striving torward superiority or perfection Guiding self-ideal represents individuals image of goal of perfection †¢Inferiority not a negative factor in life, when experienced first in life, we are pulled by striving for superiority. †¢Cope with helplessness by striving for competence mastery and perfection †¢Ã¢â‚¬Å"Lifestyle† A individuals core beliefs and assumptions guide each person’s movement through life and organize his or her reality giving meaning to life events â€Å"plan of life, style of life, strategy for living and road map of life† †¢Develop a style of life through stri ving for goals and superiority †¢Unique style is rimarily created during first 6 years of life, subsequent events may have effect on development of our personality. †¢Experiences not a decisive factor itself, but a interpretation of these events that shape personality †¢Can reframe childhood experiences and consciously create a new style of life †¢Social interest – action line of ones community feeling, it is the capacity to cooperate and contribute to community.Striving for a better future for humanity †¢Social interest is innate, but also must be taught learned and used †¢Social interest is central indicator of health, feelings of inferiority and alienation diminish as social interest is developed. Expressed through shared activity and mutual respect †¢Community feeling – feelings of being connected to all of humanity, and being involved in making the world a better place. Lack of this causes people to become discouraged and end up on useless side of life. †¢Anxiety is the result of not feeling belonged. Must master 3 universal life tasks – building friendships, establishing intimacy, contributing to society. 2 added ones by mosak and dreikurs : getting along with ourselves and developing our spiritual dimension †¢Gives special attention to relationships between siblings and psychological birth position in ones family †¢Five positions: oldest, second of only two, middle, youngest, and only †¢Actual birth order less important than persons own view of where they are †¢Family relationships earliest and mots influential social system.Theory is of a social one †¢Therapeutic process -> forming a relationship based on mutual respect, lifestyle assessment; disclosing mistaken goals and faulty assumptions -> reeducation of client towards useful side of life. Main aim to develop clients sense of belonging and assist in adoption of behaviours and processes characterized by community f eeling and social interest. Accomplished by increasing clients self awareness, and challenging and modifying his or her fundamental premises life goals and basic concepts. Alderians favour growth model of personality more then sickness model †¢Treatment focused on providing info, teaching, guiding, providing encouragement to discouraged individuals. Engouragement is most powerful method available for changing persons belief and helps build self-confidence and stimulates courage †¢Courage – willingness to act even when fearful in ways that are consistent with social nterest †¢Goals: Fostering social interest, helping clients overcome feelings of discouragement and inferiority, modifying clients views and goals (changing their lifestyle), changing faulty motivation, encouraging the individual to recognize equality among people, helping people to become contributing members of society. Therapists look for major mistakes in thinking/values ie mistrust selfishness u nrealistic ambition lack of confidence †¢Therapists determine early social influences through a family constellation †¢Early recollections also used as assessment – They are stories of events that a person SAYS occurred before 10 years of age – Useful to help understand the client †¢Process of gathering early recollections is part of lifestyle assessment, learning understanding goals and motivations of client †¢Dreams help bring problems to surface and points to patients movement †¢Adlerian counselling focus on desired outcomes Private Logic – concepts about self, others, and life that constitute the philosophy on which an individuals life style is based †¢Steps in therapy : Establish proper therapeutic relationship; Explore the psychological dynamics operating in the client (an assessment); Encourage the development of self-understanding (insight into purpose); Help the client make new choices (reorientation and reeducation). Label led as Adlerian brief therapy †¢Step 1 – Establish Relationship – seek to make person to person contact with clients rather then starting with problem.Initial focus on person, not problem. Therapists provide support. Pay more attention to subjective experiences of clients than techniques. †¢Step 2 – Explore individuals psychological dynamics – deeper understanding of indivduals lifestyle. Proceeds from two interview forms, subjective interview and objective interview. Subjective interview, counsellor helps client tell his/her life story as completely as possible.Throughout interview, listen for purposive aspects of clients coping and approaches to life, extract patterns and develop hypotheses about what works for client. Often end subjective interview with question, â€Å"how would your life be different, what would you be doing differently if problem was not present†. Objective interview discovers information about how the problem began, any precipitating events, medial history, social history, reasons client chose therapy at this time, persons coping with life tasks, lifestyle assessment †¢Adler suggests it was hrough family constellation that each person forms his unique view of self others and life †¢Adlerian assessment relies on exploration of clients family constellation †¢Adler reasoned that out of the millions of early memories, we will remember the special ones that project essential convictions †¢Use early recollectio9n to assess persons convictions of self, others life, ethics, assessment of clients stance in relation to the counselling session and counselling relationship, verification of coping patterns, assessment of individual strengths assets and interfering ideas †¢After gathering info from both types of interviews, integration and summary is next †¢General mistakes: Overgeneralization, False or impossible goals of security, Misperceptions of life and lifes demands, min imization or denial of ones basic worth, faulty values. Phase 3 : Encourage Self-Understanding and Insight – Self understanding only possible when hidden purposes and goals of behaviour are made conscious. Interpretation deals with clients underlying motives for behaving the way they do in present. Adlerian interpretation usually are hunches and gusses. †¢Phase 4 – Reorientation and Reeducation – Focuses on helping people discover new and more functional perspectives. Clients encouraged to develop courage to take risks and make changes in their lives. Want to guide patients into the useful side of life at this point ( contributing to society, confidence, acceptance of imperfection, courage etc). Encouragement very important in this step. †¢Encouragement process helps build courage.Encouragement involves showing faith in people, expecting them to assume responsibility for their lives, and valuing them for who they are. †¢Discouragement is basic con dition that prevents people from functioning, encouragement is the antidote. †¢Clients make decisions and modify their goals in reorientation stage. Commitment very essential if they want to change. †¢Counsellors seek to make difference in lives of their clients. †¢Focus more on motivation modification rather then behavioural change. †¢Based on a growth model, not medical model †¢Flexible Chapter 6 Existential Therapy †¢More of a way of thinking than any style of psychotherapy †¢Neither ndependent nor separate school of therapy, nor neatly defined model with specific techniques †¢Best described as a philosophical approach which influences a counsellors therapeutic practice †¢Grounded on assumption that we’re free, therefore responsible for all our choices and actions, we are authors of our lives and design the pathways we follow †¢Rejects deterministic view of human nature espoused by psychoanalysis (Psychonanalysis sees freed om resitrcted by unconscious forces, irrational drives, past events, while behaviourists see freedom restricted by socioculture conditioning) †¢We are not victims of circumstances because we are what we choose to be. †¢Aim of therapy is to encourage clients to reflect on life, recognize their range of alternatives and decide amongst them. â€Å"Once individuals recognize their role in creating their own life situation, they realize they have the power to change it† †¢One of the aims is to challenge people to stop deceiving themselves regarding their lack of responsibility for whats happening to them and their excessive demands on life †¢Doesn’t view client as ill, and curing them like a medical model, but rather sick of life or clumsy at living. Attention given to clients present experiences with goal of helping them develop a greater presence in their life quest †¢Basic task to encourage clients to explore all their options for creating meanin gful existence †¢European existential perspective focused on human limitations + tragic dimensions of life †¢Soren Kierkegaard – primary concern of angst ( lies between dread and anxiety) Need knowledge of angst to become human. Need the willingness to risk a leap of faith in making choices †¢Freidrich Nietzsche – Importance of subjectivity. Kierkegard and Nietzsche considered originators of existential perspective †¢Martin Heidegger – We exist in the world, don’t try to think of ourselves as being apart from the world which were thrown †¢Moods and feelings are a way of understanding whether were living authentically or not.Phenomenology provides a view of human history that doesn’t focus on past events but motivates individuals to look forward to authentic experiences †¢Jean-Paul Sartre – Failure to acknowledge our freedom and choices results in emotional problems. Freedom is hard to face up to, invent excuses in bad faith. Existence is not fixed nor finished, when attempting to pin down who we are, we engage in self deception †¢Martin Buber – Humans live in â€Å"betweenness†, never just an I but always an other. Stresses Presence, which enables true I/Thou relationships; Allows for meaning to exist in a situation; Enables an individual to be responsible in the present. When a client therapist relationship becomes equal, we become dialogic †¢Ludwig Binswanger – Addresses relationship between person and his/her environment. â€Å"Thrown into the world† but still responsible for our choices and planning for future.Existential analysis emphasizes the subjective and spiritual dimensions of human existence. †¢Medard Boss – Being-in-the-world, aboility to reflect on life events and attribute meaning to these events. Therapist must enter clients subjective world without presuppositions. †¢Key figure Viktor Frankl for Existential Psychothera py †¢Many people have means to live, but no meaning to live for. Therapeutic process aimed at challenging individuals to find meaning and purpose through suffering work and love †¢Therapist must be in touch with his own phenomenological world †¢Givens of existence : death freedom, responsibility, existential isolation, and meaninglessness. Bases therapy based on understanding of what it means to be human †¢Focus on the individuals experience of being in the world alone and facing anxiety of the isolation †¢Believe humans are in constant state of transition, emerging, evolving, and becoming. †¢Basic dimensions of human condition: Capacity for self-awareness; freedom and responsibility; creating one’s identity and establishing meaningful relationships with others; the search for meaning, purpose, values, and goals; anxiety as a condition of living; awareness of death and nonbeing. †¢Capacity for Self-Awareness – Can reflect and make cho ices as we are capable of self awareness. Greater the awareness, greater the possibilities for freedom.Capacity to live fully expands as we expand awareness on areas such as: were finite and don’t have unlimited time to do what we want; potential to take action or not to act; choose our actions; meaning is discovering how were situated in the world then living creatively; increase our sense of responsibility for consequences of choices through increased awareness; subject to loneliness, meaninglessness, emptiness, guilt and isolation; alone, yet we have an opportunity to relate to others. Decision to expand fundamental to human growth. Increasing self awareness goal for all therapy †¢Freedom and Responsibility – freedom implies responsibility for our own lives. Existential guilt is being aware of having evaded commitment or choosing not to choose.Authenticity implies were living by being true to our own evaluations of what a valuable existence is to oneself. Being free and being human are the same. Assuming responsibility is the basis for change. †¢Striving for Identity and Relationship to Others – Creating an identity requires courage, strive for connectedness with others. Awareness of our finite nature gives us appreciation of ultimate concerns. Courage entails the will to move forward in spite of anxiety producing situations. Self awareness can help make everything easier for the client, and clients having the courage to admit things is a good indicator. Strength of aloneness, isolation.A function of therapy is to help clients distinguish between a neurotically dependent attachment to another and a life affirming relationship in which both persons are enhanced. Fear of dealing with aloneness can cause one being trapped. †¢Search for meaning – Existential therapy can provide framework for helping clients challenge the meaning in their lives. Therapists trust is important in helping clients trust their own capacity t o discover a new source of values. Meaninglessness in life can lead to emptiness and hollowness, or a existential vacuum. Often happens when people are not busying themselves. Establishing values that are part of a meaningful life are issues that become the heart of counselling. Logotherapy designed to help clients find a meaning in life.Therapist should be pointing out clients can discover meaning even in suffering. Shows human suffering can be turned to human achievement. Like pleasure, meaning must be pursued obliquely. †¢Anxiety as a condition of living – Anxiety arises from personal strivings to survive and maintain and assert one’s being. Existential anxiety is the unavoidable result of being confronted with givens of existence – death, freedom, choice, isolation, meaninglessness. Existential anxiety can be a stimulus for growth. Anxiety can indicate when a person is ready for personal change. Can’t survive without anxiety. Neurotic anxiety is out of proportion to the situation, not aware of it, and tends to immobilize a person.Van deurzen says that existential therapy not to make life seem easier or more comfortable, but to encourage clients to recognize and deal with sources of their insecurity and anxiety. More self confidence leads to less anxiety. †¢Awareness of Death and Nonbeing – Death is not negatively, but hold awareness to death as a basic human condition which gives significance to living. Necessary to think of death when thinking significantly of life. Death should be a motivation to live fully. Awareness of death is a source for zest for life and creativity. People who fear death fear life. Realization of death makes us realize more clearly our actions count, we have choices, we must accept responsibility for how well we are living. Existential therapy considered an invitation to clients to recognize the ways in which they aren’t living a fully authentic life and to help them make choices that will lead to what they are capable of being. †¢Assist clients moving toward authenticity and learning to recognize when they are deceiving themselves †¢No escape from freedom, we are always responsible †¢Helps clients face anxiety and engage in action that is based on the authentic purpose of creating a worthy existence †¢Teach clients to listen to what they know of themselves †¢Assist clients in recognizing they aren’t fully present in therapy and to show them how the pattern may limit them outside of therapy; support clients in confronting anxieties; help clients redefine themselves †¢Increased awareness is central goal †¢Therapist need to understand subjective world of client Clients are expected to go out into world and decide how they’ll live differently and must be active in therapy process, as they must decide what fears guilt and anxieties they will explore †¢Major themes of therapy sessions include anxiety, freedom, responsibility, search for identity, living authentically, isolation, alienation, death and its implications for living, continual search for meaning. Assist people in facing life with courage hope and a willingness to find meaning in life †¢Therapists strive to create caring and intimate relationships with clients, core of the relationship is respect. Display genuine concern and empathy. †¢Not technique oriented †¢Priority to understand the clients world. †¢In initial phase, therapist assists clients in identifying and clarifying assumptions of the world. †¢In middle phase, clients encouraged to fully examine source and authority of their present value system. Final phase focuses on helping people take what they are learning of themselves and put it into action †¢Appropriate for people with developmental crises, experiencing grief and loss, confronting death, facing a major life decision †¢Most appropriate for clients that are commited to dealing with their problems about living and for people who feel alienated from the current expectations of society or those searching for the meaning of their lives †¢Highly relevant in multicultural context, doesn’t have a particular way of viewing or relating to reality, broad perspective †¢Main limitation is the level of maturity, life experience, and intensive training that’s required of practitioners. Chapter 1, 2, 3 †¢Counselor must be authentic and shed stereotypes, otherwise client will keep themselves hidden †¢Therapists serve as models for clients, clients will take from us. Effective therapists have: Identity, respect and appreciate themselves, open to change, make choices that are life oriented, authentic, sincere, honest, sense of humor, make mistakes and willing to admit them, live in present, appreciate influence of culture, have sincere interest in welfare of others, effective interpersonal skills, deeply involved in their work, are passio nate, able to maintain healthy boundaries †¢Having been a patient first greatly contributes to being a counsellor †¢Counsellors role is to create a climate in which clients can express themselves and arrive at solutions that are best for them, and their values not your own. †¢Mandatory ethics – view of ethical practice that deals with the minimum level of professional practice †¢Aspirational ethics – higher level of ethical practice that addresses doing what is in the best interest of clients †¢Positive ethics – do their best for clients rather than simply meet minimum standards to stay out of trouble †¢Difficult to strike a balance for informed consent †¢